Here, I highlight some of the most pertinent questions that arise if we aim at a broader understanding of the ecological relevance and evolutionary trajectory of manipulating parasites. Biol. 176, E90E97. Sci. 10, 234241. Microscop. Roy. Alternative Explanations for Phenotypic Alterations in Parasitized Hosts, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), Laboratory of Plant Ecology, Departamento de Ingeniera Gentica, Centro de Investigacin y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politcnico Nacional - Unidad Irapuato, Irapuato, Mexico. The viral gene ecdysteroid-uridine diphosphate-glucosyltransferase encodes an enzyme that inactivates the caterpillar's molting hormone by transferring a sugar moiety to it. Behavioral alterations that have been associated with latent toxoplasmosis include multiple forms of schizophrenia, personality disorder, Parkinson disease and Alzheimer disease, as well as increased aggressiveness, decreased willingness to follow social rules, and slower reaction times in men (Flegr, 2013a). Behav. 71, 415471. Biol. Front. Host manipulation is the process by which a pathogen evolves adaptations to manipulate the behavior of the host to maximize reproduction (R o) of the pathogen. How and why Toxoplasma makes us crazy. The term genetic engineering is generally used to refer to methods of recombinant DNA technology, which emerged from basic research in microbial genetics. J. Theor. J. Inverteb. Manipulation of medically important insect vectors by their parasites. Phenotypically plastic hosts will always respond to parasitization, which makes it crucial to define a clear Null-hypothesis: which induced phenotypic responses to parasitization can be expected in a non-manipulated host? The same evolutionary forces that rule host immunity to infection are likely to act in the manipulative interactions as well. Sexually transmitted parasites should enhance their fitness when they successfully suppress sickness behavior and those host phenotypic alterations that allow for a discrimination against parasitized individuals by potential mating partners. U.S.A. 108, 93509355. 68, 219221. Science 129, 14661470. Parasit Vectors. However, challenging Anopheles stephensi females with heat-inactivated E. coli enhanced their feeding activities during the same time window in which Plasmodium would be in its infective stage (Cator et al., 2015), an observation that demonstrates how closely side effects of host immune responses can resemble the outcome of a putative host manipulation. By contrast, non-persistently transmitted viruses are effectively transmitted when vectors briefly probe infected hosts and, therefore, these viruses usually tend to reduce host plant quality for vectors (Mauck et al., 2012). Second, the adaptive host manipulation hypothesis clearly defines the observed phenotypic alterations as being under the genetic control of the parasite. 8600 Rockville Pike Immune evasion and recognition of the Syphilis spirochete in blood and skin of secondary Syphilis patients: two immunologically distinct compartments. doi: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01604.x, Smallegange, R. C., van Gemert, G.-J., van De Vegte-Bolmer, M., Gezan, S., Takken, W., Sauerwein, R. W., et al. Zombie Ants, Fearless Rats, and Other Prominent Cases of Manipulated Hosts, Fatal Attraction When the Host is a Plant, Searching for General Patterns in Reports on Host Manipulation. Intermediate host: A host species that serves the dispersal of the parasite but usually does not allow for its reproduction, at least not in the sexual phase. In spite of potential research biases and the likelihood of both, false positives and false negatives among the existing reports, it seems to be a real phenomenon that manipulating and non-manipulating parasites co-exist, sometimes within the same taxonomic group. Gut microbiota modulation, with the aim to reverse established. Host manipulation (see Glossary) has evolved as one of the primary life history strategies in all major parasitic lineages [1,2]. Rep. 5:11947. doi: 10.1038/srep11947, Cornet, S., Nicot, A., Rivero, A., and Gandon, S. (2013). doi: 10.1098/rspb.2000.1072. Table 1. For example, when a user visits https://portswigger.net/web-security, their browser will compose a request containing a Host header as follows: GET /web-security HTTP/1.1 Host: portswigger.net doi: 10.1073/pnas.0907191107, Mauck, K. E., De Moraes, C. M., and Mescher, M. C. (2014a). Soc. Funct. In plants, sexual reproduction is not determined by physical contact but rather depends on vectors, for which reason STDs in the sense of diseases that are transmitted through physical contact during sexual activities are not found in plants (Wennstrm et al., 2003), although the above-mentioned smut fungus demonstrates how plant pathogens can exploit the sexual phase of their host for transmission. More emphasis should be put on direct comparisons among parasites of animals, plants, and humans. doi: 10.1007/s00436-013-3545-6, Soper, D. M., King, K. C., Vergara, D., and Lively, C. M. (2014). In cats, infection with Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV) and Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV) has been correlated with enhanced plasma concentrations of sexual hormones, including testosterone (Tejerizo et al., 2012). These alterations lead to a fatal attraction phenomenon in which plants become more attractive to their herbivores, or in which herbivores are deceptively attracted to host plants of inferior quality (Table 1). Biol. 22, 34583475. Thus, the unambiguous identification of a manipulation event requires an understanding of the physiological and molecular mechanisms that cause these alterations. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-695X.2012.00931.x, Fang, Y., Jiao, X., Xie, W., Wang, S., Wu, Q., Shi, X., et al. PLoS Pathog. Microbiol. Although not widely studied, behavioral host manipulation by various pathogens has been documented. A unique dual activity amino acid hydroxylase in Toxoplasma gondii. Available online at: http://jjm.ajums.ac.ir, Sloan, D. B., Giraud, T., and Hood, M. E. (2008). I agree with (Poulin, 1995) in that particularly complex phenotypic changes can represent good indicators of a manipulation. Behavioral changes induced by Toxoplasma infection of rodents are highly specific to aversion of cat odors. Here, potential host manipulation strategies by SARS-CoV-2 are examined with a focus on its binding to neuropilin-1 and the resultant effects on pain suppression. Parasites: evolution's neurobiologists. For example, Tomato spotted wilt virus augments the frequency of all feeding behaviors in infected males of its thrips vector (Stafford et al., 2011), and Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus makes the odor of infected citrus plants initially more attractive for its psyllid vector but then, after virus acquisition, causes psyllids to disperse to non-infected plants (Mann et al., 2012). PLoS Neglect. Aspects in the life history of Neoleucochloridium problematicum (Magath, 1920) New Comb. doi: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2015.12.006, Hari Dass, S. A., Vasudevan, A., Dutta, D., Soh, L. J. T., Sapolsky, R. M., and Vyas, A. Hofmann, O. (2015). Protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii manipulates mate choice in rats by enhancing attractiveness of males. Manipulation: The causing of alterations in the phenotype of organism A by its interaction with organism B that are under the genetic control of organism B. -, Severance E.G., Dickerson F.B., Viscidi R.P. The last interpretation gains some support from the observation that Toxoplasma-infected chimpanzees exhibit fatal attraction to leopard urine (Poirotte et al., 2016). Nature 411, 826833. These responses can feedback to the parasite: for example, by enhancing the competition among host and non-host predators for an infected intermediate host vector or among non-vectors for an infected final host, by depleting limiting resources within the host, or by altering the survival rates of the manipulated host in its environment. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Frankfurt: P. Weber Verlag. Induced Responses to Herbivory. Schizophr Bull. doi: 10.1111/mec.12307, van Houte, S., van Oers, M. M., Han, Y., Vlak, J. M., and Ros, V. I. D. (2014). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. Ann. Front. (2013a). doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2015.01.003, Levri, E. P. (1999). Ecol. Neurosci. Recently, many other manipulations have been reported for plant pathogens, including alterations in plant odor or in the quality and quantity of nutrients that move in the phloem. Curr. doi: 10.1017/S0031182000085127, Poulin, R. (1995). Potential solutions to problems posed by the offspring ratios of people with parasitic and viral infections. doi: 10.1006/anbe.1999.1087, Mongkolsamrit, S., Kobmoo, N., Tasanathai, K., Khonsanit, A., Noisripoom, W., Srikitikulchai, P., et al. 111, 217224. change the color and shape of the tentacles of snails that serve as their intermediate hosts and make them pulsate in response to light, thereby attracting predatory birds that represent the final hosts (Kagan, 1951). Evolutionary approaches to sexually transmitted diseases. Recent studies have shown that exposure to toxoplasmosis in humans (e.g., through cat feces) has also been associated with behavioral changes that are predicted to enhance the spread of the pathogen. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.0030298. (3) The symptoms that characterize most viral and bacterial infections comprise fatigue and usually lead to a decrease in overall activity, including sexual activity. 21, 15441554. Infection with the insect virus Hz-2v alters mating behavior and pheromone production in female Helicoverpa zea moths. Interestingly, an adaptive immune response of the host can result in phenotypic changes that could easily be interpreted as the results of a manipulation effect. Natl. In particular, we lack an explanation for a crucial feature of the successful manipulation strategy: the reliability of changes in the odor profile of a plant as indicators of its increased nutritional quality. (1891). 277, 1055510561. 2018;16:647655. Transmission mechanisms shape pathogen effects on host-vector interactions: evidence from plant viruses. In general, parasites can gain higher selective benefits from manipulation when the frequency of transmission-relevant encounters among non-manipulated consecutive hosts is low (Poulin, 1994). Roy. Rep. 3:2876. doi: 10.1038/srep02876, Flegr, J. The malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, increases the frequency of multiple feeding of its mosquito vector, Anopheles gambiae. In fact, any process that involves the active and systematic manipulation of an organism's gene pool, or the sum of the genes in any population that reproduces by breeding (i.e, sexually), qualifies as genetic engineering. Integrat. doi: 10.1006/jipa.2000.4942, Rajabaskar, D., Bosque-Prez, N. A., and Eigenbrode, S. D. (2014). Would you like email updates of new search results? doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.04.003, Barrett, L. G., and Heil, M. (2012). Biol. 165, 7180. Parasitic manipulation of hosts' phenotype, or how to make a Zombie - an introduction to the symposium. 6:e1717. A search conducted in Web of Science Core Collection database on 10th of March 2016, produced 1000 hits when I searched for host manipulation AND parasite in topic, but only 66 hits when this search was combined with AND STD* or sexual*, and only few among these studies really reported on the manipulation of host sexual behavior by a sexually transmitted parasite (Table 2). Proc. Clin Infect Dis. These stage-specific changes in behavior were paralleled by changes in the responsiveness of mosquito odorant receptors, which indicates that the changed behavior has a neurophysiological basis. Parasitology 135, 427431. Lond. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Insektenttende Pilze mit Besonderer Bercksichtigung der Nonne. Rev. (2011). The most prominent fatal attraction is that of rats and other mammals to their feline predators, caused by the protozoon, T. gondii (Berdoy et al., 2000). Host Manipulation by STDsRarely Evolved or Rarely Studied? Oikos 100, 397402. Thus, taxonomically unrelated parasites can trigger the same biting behavior of an ant and its paralyzation in an atypical location (Libersat et al., 2009). 216, 310. Host manipulation by parasites: a multidimensional phenomenon. doi: 10.1016/0020-7519(95)00100-X, Poulin, R. (2000). doi: 10.1126/science.1209199, House, P. K., Vyas, A., and Sapolsky, R. (2011). Malaria infected mosquitoes express enhanced attraction to human odor. Morand A, Fabre A, Minodier P, Boutin A, Vanel N, Bosdure E, Fournier PE. (2013). Caterpillars that are infected with baculoviruses suffer from Wipfelkrankheit (Wipfel = German for tree top, Krankheit = German for disease): whereas healthy caterpillars at a certain developmental stage hide in the soil and pupate, infected individuals climb to the highest parts of their host tree where they die, liquefy and release the virions (Hofmann, 1891). 5 Altmetric Metrics Abstract Research about the role of gut microbiome in colorectal cancer (CRC) is a newly emerging field of study. An obligate parasite or holoparasite is a parasitic organism that cannot complete its life-cycle without exploiting a suitable host. Toxoplasmosis needs the digestive tract of the feline to survive. However, it remains an open question whether and to what degree these findings are also applicable to the brain of infected humans and, more importantly, the relevance of these effects in the interaction of the natural intermediate hosts with the natural final hosts of T. gondii has yet to be determined. Chicago, IL; London: University of Chicago Press. Alteration: Differences in the phenotype of an organism that can be observed after a specific event. Domest. (2005). Ecol. (2015). N.Y. Acad. Final host: A host species in which a parasite can conclude its life cycle and reproduce. doi: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2011.01330.x, Duell, B. L., Tan, C. K., Carey, A. J., Wu, F., Cripps, A. W., and Ulett, G. C. (2012). Such host manipulation has often been assumed to be energetically costly, which should restrict its evolution. 48, 141161. Sexually transmitted parasites and sexual selection in the milkweed leaf beetle, Labidomera clivicollis. For example, Poulin (2000) performed a meta-analysis and found a negative correlation of the estimated relative influence of parasites with the year of publication. Mllerian mimicry (Mller 1879) is a cooperative form of mimicry, and occurs when two or more species share the same signal, in order to communicate with a third species their true type, to the benefit of all three. 29, 662673. Malaria infection increases attractiveness of humans to mosquitoes. 42, 113120. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023866, Raina, A. K., Adams, J. R., Lupiani, B., Lynn, D. E., Kim, W. J., Burand, J. P., et al. The equivalent of such an effect in plants could result from crosstalk among the different plant defensive signaling cascades. -. Ultimately, parasite net fitness represents the relevant outcome of any manipulation effect. Host manipulation is the process by which a pathogen evolves adaptations to manipulate the behavior of the host to maximize reproduction (Ro) of the pathogen. Biol. doi: 10.1038/nature05286, Kagan, I. G. (1951). J. Exp. An official website of the United States government. Med. 37, 14271439. Pivoting the plant immune system from dissection to deployment. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Why does Microbiome affect behavior? Lond. Ecol. doi: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2010.06.014. doi: 10.1146/annurev.ento.48.091801.112722, Ingwell, L. L., Eigenbrode, S. D., and Bosque-Prez, N. A. Life-history traits that seem to be shared by almost all known manipulating parasites are the need to switch among host species and a trophic mode of transmission. Tomato yellow leaf curl virus alters the host preferences of its vector Bemisia tabaci. (2013). (2012). Parasite: Term used here in the widest possible sense to denominate viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa and animals that must colonize a living host to gain positive fitness and whose presence usually has a negative effect on the fitness of the host. Nature 444, 323329. Bookshelf Proc. 4 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, Fatal Attraction and Manipulating Parasites. In summary, parasites can alter host sexual behavior, including the frequency of mating and the level of promiscuity, and potential molecular mechanisms for this type of manipulation have been described (Klein, 2003; Adamo, 2013, 2014). Moreover, a lot of these systems involve adaptive parasite-induced changes of host phenotype (typically behavior or morphology), which is commonly known as host manipulation. Both behavioral changes are under the genetic control of the host and can reduce the transmission of horizontally transmitted parasites. A. It is likely that the existing literature contains both false negative and false positive reports, and unbiased screenings of a broad number of parasite species are very difficult, due to the broad diversity of possible manipulation effects that would have to be considered. Trends Plant Sci. In the above paragraphs I discussed some of the circumstances that might select for, or against, host manipulation. Behav. A search executed in the Web of Science Core Collection database on 10th of March 2016 for reports on fatigue or sickness behavior in combination with human STDs revealed that STDs appear to be underrepresented in this literature. Host change: As part of its dispersal behavior, the individual parasite moves from one individual host organism to another. Monitoring the switch from housekeeping to pathogen defense metabolism in Arabidopsis thaliana using cDNA arrays. J. Parasitol. How can we distinguish manipulation effects from adaptive host responses to parasitization? Biol. Rep. 2:e578. (2013). 216, 120126. Virtually all infected animals show some kind of sickness behavior (Hart, 1988), which usually includes a general decrease in mobility and social activities. Compar. 3:86. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2015.00086, Vyas, A. 57, 11991205. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic . (2013). Parasites represent a ubiquitous aspect in the life of multicellular organisms (Wood and Johnson, 2015) and most, if not all, of us have experienced how strongly an infection can interfere with our normal activities and well-being. Curr. 20, 538540. Manipulation tactics, such as gaslighting, lying, blaming, criticizing, and shaming, can be incredibly damaging to a person's psychological well-being. NCI CPTC Antibody Characterization Program, Herbison R., Lagrue C., Poulin R. The missing link in parasite manipulation of host behavior. doi: 10.1111/pim.12157, Poirotte, C., Kappeler, P. M., Ngoubangoye, B., Bourgeois, S., Moussodji, M., and Charpentier, M. J. E. (2016). Testosterone treatment diminishes sickness behavior in male songbirds. After exploration of the literature pertaining to these four pathways, four major trends become evident. Behav. Entomol. Toxoplasmosis is another example. doi: 10.1242/jeb.073601, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Adamo, S. A. 2021 May 14;16(1):769-772. doi: 10.1515/med-2021-0279. 22, 102110. The most notable example is rabies. Entomol. doi: 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.02.009, Belliure, B., Sabelis, M. W., and Janssen, A. In addition, most animals discriminate against parasitized individuals as potential mating partners (Vyas, 2013; Adamo, 2014). (2002). Because the net quality of a plant as a host for an herbivore or pathogen depends on both, its content of primary nutrients and its spectrum of defensive traits (Barrett and Heil, 2012), the increased quality for herbivores that we observe in many diseased plants could be a side-effect of negative crosstalk between different defense systems of the plant, rather than the direct effect of a targeted manipulation by the parasite. Physiol. doi: 10.1038/s41579-018-0014-3. Parasitol. This interpretation is strongly supported by the finding that similar behavioral alterations were observed in mosquitoes that had been challenged with heat-killed E. coli (Cator et al., 2013). doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0706.2003.12004.x, Wood, C. L., and Johnson, P. T. J. It seems obvious that the microbial agents of STDs and other sexually transmitted parasites would gain fitness benefits from enhancing their host's sexual promiscuity, frequency of mating behavior, or duration of the sexually active phase (Wennstrm et al., 2003). Similarly, enhanced locomotion (e.g., foraging or hunting activity) of an infected animal can enhance its exposure to the predators that represent the final hosts of the parasite, but enhanced locomotion might primarily serve to fulfill the enhanced energy demands that result from the adaptive immune response in the host. As it stands, research suggests that the mechanisms of host manipulation fall into three categories: immunological, genomic/proteomic and neuropharmacological, and forth potential category: symbioant-mediated manipulation. In the case of sexually or otherwise horizontally transmitted parasites, the absence of alterations in parasitized hosts can indicate a successful manipulation effect. The parasite cannot achieve sexual reproduction in rodents and the described alterations increase the chances of transmission to its final, feline host. The extensive literature on the evolutionary arms-race between plants and their herbivores or pathogens provides us with multiple examples of the multiple possible outcomes of the zigzag between plant enemies evolving traits for successful attack, plants responding with the evolution of traits that allow for enemy recognition and the mounting of adequate resistance responses, and enemies responding with counter-resistance strategies (Fraenkel, 1959; Dangl and Jones, 2001; Jones and Dangl, 2006). This is opposed to a facultative parasite, which can act as a parasite but does not rely on its host to continue its life-cycle. (2013). Rev. Alberca RW, Pereira NZ, Oliveira LMDS, Gozzi-Silva SC, Sato MN. -, Reiber C., Schattuck E.C., Fiore S., Alperin P., Davis V., Moore J. Host shift: During the evolution of the parasite, genetic or geographical shifts in the populations of the host or the parasite facilitate the parasite gaining positive fitness in a new host species. (2013). Do I sneeze or cough to get rid of the pathogens in my respiratory system, that is, do these behaviors form part of my adaptive immune response, or am I being manipulated by the microorganisms to favor their dispersal? Recently, T. gondii has been reported to hypomethylate the arginine vasopressin promoters in the medial amygdala of rats (Hari Dass and Vyas, 2014), an epigenetic manipulation that could cause a stronger activation of vasopressinergic neurons after exposure to cat odor (Flegr and Markos, 2014). Sex-specific or ontogenetic differences in the responses of hosts to certain parasites are likely to be common, and host manipulation is likely to be routinely overlooked in studies that compare parasitized and non-parasitized individuals at the population level without considering individual parameters such as sex, ontogenetic stage or nutritional status. 2017;17:521. doi: 10.1186/s12879-017-2623-2. 45, 319332. BMC Infect Dis. 33, 10431050. Recently, it has been shown that baculoviruses enhance the positive phototactic behavior in the infected caterpillars (van Houte et al., 2014), an alteration that further contributes to the phenotype of tree-top disease. 17, 260270. Plant Cell Environ. The three cases of host manipulation presented earlier are still missing evidence for manipulation factors and their source (step 2 and 3) compared to the tobacco addiction pathway and jewel wasp-cockroach parasite-host system (Table 1).The search for manipulation factors and their source in parasites suspected of adaptive behavioural manipulation should be a major goal of research in the area . With a few exceptions, such as the Caryophyllaceae, which are infected by the anther-smut fungus Microbotryum violaceum, plants as targets for manipulating parasites have only entered the literature recently. Evol. Second, there is clear evidence that men and women, or male and female rodents, behave differently when suffering from latent toxoplasmosis (Flegr, 2013b). Interestingly, a phenotypically similar zombie-like behavior can also be elicited by fungal parasites such as Ophiocordyceps unilateralis. Prandovszky, E., Gaskell, E., Martin, H., Dubey, J. P., Webster, J. P., and McConkey, G. A. Adaptive changes in the behaviour of parasitized animals: a critical review. 2020 Sep 12;71(6):1552-1553. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciaa469. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2012.02026.x, Mauck, K. E., De Moraes, C. M., and Mescher, M. C. (2010). Rep. 4:5230. doi: 10.1038/srep05230, Shirbazou, S., Abasian, L., and Meymand, F. T. (2011). 76, 612. Biol. Similarly, Tomato yellow leaf curl virus enhances the attractiveness of infected tomato plants to virus-free whiteflies (B. tabaci), whereas infected whiteflies lose the capacity to distinguish between infected and healthy host plants (Fang et al., 2013). Host manipulation is clearly a multidimensional phenomenon that should be measured simultaneously along several phenotypic axes. Mol. Further research efforts are required to understand the ecological, evolutionary and medical relevance of parasites that manipulate their hosts, and this research will require criteria that define how manipulated phenotypes can be identified and distinguished for example, from adaptive host responses to parasitization. 9:e4069. Trends Parasitol. Baculovirus infection triggers a positive phototactic response in caterpillars to induce tree-top disease. 1230, 13. 25, 22602264. For example, the enhanced numbers of mating events and of different mating partners reported for a water snail infected with horizontally transmitted trematodes could be the result of a successful manipulation by a sexually transmitted parasite; however, it might also represent the outcome of an adaptation of the host, because it leads to enhanced genetic variation among the offspring and, thus, enhanced resistance to the locally adapted parasite (Soper et al., 2014). (2013). Klein, S. L. (2003). Therefore, it might not appear to be too surprising when parasitized hosts exhibit behavioral alterations (see Glossary) as compared to healthy conspecifics. Trends Plant Sci. (2013). The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. (2014). Infection with Toxoplasma gondii does not elicit predator aversion in male mice nor increase their attractiveness in terms of mate choice. Agree with ( Poulin, R. ( 2011 ) mechanisms that cause these alterations any you..., Levri, E. P. ( 1999 ) Neoleucochloridium problematicum ( Magath, 1920 ) New Comb are the... Of hosts ' phenotype, or against, host manipulation is clearly a multidimensional that. Evasion and recognition of the feline to survive highly specific to aversion of cat odors aspects in the phenotype an! Described alterations increase the chances of transmission to its final, feline.... T. J Glossary ) has evolved as one of the Syphilis spirochete blood! Cancer ( CRC ) is a parasitic organism that can not achieve sexual reproduction in rodents and described! In female Helicoverpa zea moths 4 Articles, This article is part of the U.S. of! Problematicum ( Magath, 1920 ) New Comb terms of mate choice from... Zea moths 4 Articles, This article is part of its mosquito,! Cdna arrays, Pereira NZ, Oliveira LMDS, Gozzi-Silva SC, Sato.. Molecular mechanisms that cause these alterations and sexual selection in the above i..., the unambiguous identification of a manipulation R., Lagrue C., Poulin, R. ( 2011.... Event requires an understanding of the feline to survive PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Scholar... To pathogen defense metabolism in Arabidopsis thaliana using cDNA arrays transferring a sugar moiety to it of microbiome... Wood, C. M., and humans LMDS, Gozzi-Silva SC, Sato MN behavior and pheromone production female! 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